Videophone
Descriptive names and terminology
See also: List of video telecommunication services and product brands
Modern trend: newer units, such as this Nortel 1535 IP model, have migrated away from slow POTS lines to higher speed ISDN and broadband VoIP services
The name videophone is not as standardized as its earlier counterpart, the telephone, resulting in a variety of names and terms being used worldwide, and even within the same region or country. Videophones are also known as videotelephones (or video telephones) and often by an early trademarked name “Picturephone”, which was the world’s first commercial videophone produced in volume. The compound name ‘videophone’ slowly entered into general use after 1950, although ‘video telephone’ likely entered the lexicon earlier after ‘video’ was coined in 1935.
Videophone calls (or ‘videocalls’), differ from videoconferencing in that they expect to serve individuals, not groups. However that distinction has becoming increasingly blurred with technology improvements such as increased bandwidth and sophisticated software clients that can allow for multiple parties on a call. In general everyday usage the term videoconferencing is now frequently used instead of videocall for point-to-point calls between two units. Both videophone calls and videoconferencing are also now commonly referred to as a ‘video link’.
Webcams are popular, relatively low cost devices which can provide live video and audio streams via personal computers, and can be used with many software clients for video calls.
A videoconference system is generally higher cost than a videophone and deploys greater capabilities. A videoconference (also known as a videoteleconference) allows two or more locations to communicate via live, simultaneous two-way video and audio transmissions. This is often accomplished by the use of a multipoint control unit (a centralized distribution and call management system) or by a similar non-centralized multipoint capability embedded in each videoconferencing unit. Again, technology improvements have circumvented traditional definitions by allowing multiple party videoconferencing via web-based applications. A separate webpage article is devoted to videoconferencing.
A telepresence system is a high-end videoconferencing system and service usually employed by enterprise-level corporate offices. Telepresence conference rooms use state-of-the art room designs, video cameras, displays, sound-systems and processors, coupled with high-to-very-high capacity bandwidth transmissions.
Typical uses of the various technologies described above include videocalling or videoconferencing on a one-to-one, one-to-many or many-to-many basis for personal, business, educational, deaf Tele-Relay and tele-medical, diagnostic and rehabilitative use or services. New services utilizing videocalling and videoconferencing, such as personal videocalls to inmates incarcerated in penitentiaries, and videoconferencing to resolve airline engineering issues at maintenance facilities, are being created or evolving on an on-going basis.
Other names for ‘videophone’ that have been used in English are: Viewphone (the British Telecom equivalent to AT&T’s Picturephone), and visiophone, a common French translation that has also crept into limited English usage, as well as over twenty less common names and expressions. Latin-based translations of ‘videophone’ in other languages include vidophone (French), bildtelefon (German), videotelefono (Italian), both videfono and videotelfono (Spanish), both beeldtelefoon and videofoon (Dutch), and videofona (Catalan).
Early history
Fiction becomes fact: an imaginary early combination videophone-television, conceptualized by George du Maurier and published in 1878. Note the use of then-contemporary speaking tubes by both the father in the foreground and his daughter on the viewing display.
Barely two years after the telephone was first patented in the United States, an early concept of a combined videophone/wide-screen television called a telephonoscope was conceptualized in the popular periodicals of the day. It was also mentioned in various early science fiction works such as Le Vingtime sicle: La vie lectrique (The 20th Century: The Electrical Life) and other works written by Albert Robida, and was also sketched in various cartoons by George du Maurier as a fictional invention of Thomas Edision. One such sketch was published on December 9, 1878 in Punch magazine.
The term telectroscope was also used in 1878 by French writer and publisher Louis Figuier, to popularize an invention wrongly interpreted as real and incorrectly ascribed to Alexander Graham Bell. Written under the pseudonym “Electrician”, his article claimed that an “an eminent scientist” had invented a device whereby objects or people anywhere in the world “….could be seen anywhere by anybody”. The device, among other functions, would allow merchants to transmit pictures of their wares to their customers, and the contents of museum collections to be made available to scholars in distant cities. In the era prior to the advent of broadcasting, electrical “seeing” devices were viewed as adjuncts to the telephone, thus creating the concept of a videophone.
In April 1891, Alexander Graham Bell did actually record conceptual notes on an electrical radiophone, which discussed “….the possibility of seeing by electricity” using devices that employed tellurium or selenium imaging components. Bell went on to later predict that: “…the day would come when the man at the telephone would be able to see the distant person to whom he was speaking.”
The compound name ‘videophone’ slowly entered into general usage after 1950, although ‘video telephone’ likely entered the lexicon earlier after ‘video’ was coined in 1935. Prior to that time there appeared to be no standard terms for ‘video telephone’, with expressions such as ’sight-sound television system’ , ‘visual radio’ and nearly 20 others (in English) being used to describe the marriage of telegraph, telephone, television and radio technologies employed in early experiments.
One technological precursor to the videophone was the teleostereograph machine developed by AT&T’s Bell Labs in the 1920s, which was a forerunner of today’s fax (facsimile) machines. By 1927 AT&T had created its earliest electro-mechanical videophone which operated at 18 frames per second and occupied half a room full of equipment cabinets. An early U.S. test in 1927 had their then-Commerce Secretary Herbert Hoover address an audience in New York City from Washington, D.C.; although the audio portion was two-way, the video portion was one-way with only those in New York being able to see Hoover.
First public video telephone service
The world’s first public video telephone service was developed by Dr. Georg Schubert and opened by the German Reichspost in 1936 using square displays of 8 inches (20 cm), but which quickly closed in 1940 due to the WWII.[citation needed] In that service trial, video telephone lines linked Berlin to Nuremberg, Munich, and Hamburg, with terminals integrated within public telephone booths and transmitting at the same resolution as the first German TV sets, at 440 lines.[citation needed] The service was offered to the general public who had to simultaneously visit special post office videotelephone booths in their respective cities, but at the same time also had Nazi political and propagandistic overtones similar to the broadcasting of the 1936 Olympic Games in Berlin.
The Deutsche Bundespost postal service would later develop and deploy its BIGFON video telephony network from 1981 to 1988, serving several large German cities.
AT&T Picturephone
Three views of AT&T’s advanced
Mod II Picturephone of 1969,
meant for office or personal use
AT&T Picturephone (Mod II) fully enclosed in its housing, with its control pad at bottom
Right side view, housing removed, one of its printed circuit boards exposed
An exposed view of the Picturephone’s rear circuit board
In the United States AT&T conducted extensive research and development of videophones, leading to public demonstrations of its trademarked Picturephone product and service in the 1960s, including displays at the 1964 New York World’s Fair. The demonstration units usually used small oval housings on swivel stands, intended to stand on desks. Similar AT&T Picturephone units were also featured at the Telephone Association of Canada Pavilion (the ‘Bell’ Pavilion) at Expo 67, an International World’s Fair held in Montreal, Canada in 1967. Demonstration units were available at these fairs for the public to test, with fair-goers permitted to make videophone calls to volunteer recipients at other locations.
The United States would not see its first public video telephone booths until 1964, when AT&T installed their earliest commercial videophone unit, the Picturephone Mod I, in public booths in three cities: New York, Washington, D.C. and Chicago. Picturephone booths were set up in New York’s Grand Central Station and elsewhere. With fanfare, Picturephones were also installed in offices of Westinghouse in Pittsburgh, and at other progressive companies. However the use of reservation time slots and their initial cost of US$16 per three minute call at public booths greatly limited their appeal to the point that they were discontinued by 1968.
Unrelated difficulties at New York Telephone also slowed AT&T’s efforts, and few customers signed up for the service in either city. A CNN report on 6 September 2001 stated that Picturephone service only had a total of 500 subscribers at its peak, and the service faded away in the 1970s.[citation needed] AT&T’s initial Mod I and its upgraded Picturephone Mod II programs,, researched principally at its Bell Labs, spanned 15 years and consumed US$500 million, eventually meeting with commercial failure. AT&T concluded that its early videophone was a “concept looking for a market” and discontinued its Picturephone service in the late 1970s. The research and development programs conducted by Bell Labs were highly notable for the beyond-the-state-of-the-art results produced in materials science, advanced telecommunications, microelectronics and information technologies.
Color on AT&T’s Picturephone was not employed with their early models. These Picturephone units packaged Plumbicon cameras and small CRT displays within their housings. The cameras were located atop their screens to help users see eye to eye. See this section for more information on Picturephone technology. Later generation display screens were larger than in the original demonstration units, approximately six inches (15 cm) square in a roughly cubical cabinet.
AT&T would then market its VideoPhone 2500 to the general public from 1992 to 1995 with prices starting at US$1,500 and later dropping to $1,000, again with very little commercial success.
Other early devices: 19761999
The Lumaphone was developed and marketed by Atari and Mitsubishi in 1985. The project was started by the Ataritel division of the Atari Video Game Company in 1983 under the direction of Atari’s Steve Bristow. Atari then sold its division to Mitsubishi in 1984. The Lumaphone was marketed by Mitsubishi Electric of America in 1986 as the Luma LU-1000. Similar to Bell Labs’ very early image transfer phone of 1956, it could transmit still images every 35 seconds over analog POTS lines, and could also be connected to a regular TV or monitor for improved teleconferencing. A larger video image was available by attaching its optional VisiTel LU-500 display.
Intellect (1993): was a quasi-wireless videophone with still image and non-live video-clip transfers
The Intellect was a neo- or prototype wireless videophone. It was developed in 1993 by inventor Daniel A. Henderson, and featured still image and non-live video clip transfers. The pioneering system and device were designed to receive pictures and video data sent from an originator to a message center for transmission and display to a wireless device such as a cellular telephone.
The Intellect was essentially a cell phone handset with a large black and white display that could show still images and video clips downloaded remotely from a computer via a wireless transmitter. The data transfer protocols pioneered in the Intellect design were later deployed with the common camera phones released in the early 2000s. However, the complete integration of the cellular phone, digital camera and its wireless transmission infrastructure would take a few more years to complete. The prototype models were donated to the Smithsonian’s National Museum of American History in 2007.
General lack of public acceptance
This section called “General lack of public acceptance” is missing citations or needs footnotes. Please help add inline citations to guard against copyright violations and factual inaccuracies. (December 2009)
Early AT&T Picturephones had few users, in part because the service was relatively expensive, approximately US$90 per month in 1974. However as modern technology reduced the costs to nominal (see: webcams and UMTS), videophone calling continued to be marginally used. This contrasts to many early, overly optimistic views that videotelephony would become ubiquitous.
One reason may be that even today videophone calling is a poor analog for face-to-face conversation. Video cellphone users also commonly look at the video screen and not at the video camera, causing the eyes to take on an unnatural awkward glance, as the camera is usually just positioned away from the screen on almost all videocalling-enabled cellphones.
Another reason may be that people actually desire less fidelity in their communication, as evidenced by the popularity of written conversation (i.e. texting and instant messaging, which are commonly available on all video-enabled cell phones and webchat programs).
Although it could also be argued that for users who would benefit greatly from videophone services (e.g. members of a family living far apart and who may have a strong desire, but little opportunity for face-to-face conversations), costs are still largely prohibitive for video cellphone calls: inexpensive solutions for such calls (such as on Hutchison 3’s Skype enabled cell phones) only cover a handful of countries as of late 2008.
Current usage
Ultimate in downsizing: a mobile video call between Sweden and Singapore made on a Sony-Ericsson K800
The widest deployment of video telephony now occurs in mobile phones, as nearly all mobile phones supporting UMTS networks can work as videophones using their internal cameras, and are able to make video calls wirelessly to other UMTS users in the same country or internationally.[citation needed] As of the second quarter of 2007, there are over 131 million UMTS users (and hence potential videophone users), on 134 networks in 59 countries.[citation needed]
Videophones are increasingly used in the provision of telemedicine to the elderly and to those in remote locations, where the ease and convenience of quickly obtaining diagnostic and consultative medical services are readily apparent. In one single instance quoted in 2006: “A nurse-led clinic at Letham has received positive feedback on a trial of a video-link which allowed 60 pensioners to be assessed by medics without travelling to a doctor’s office or medical clinic.” A further improvement in telemedical services has been the development of new technology incorporated into special videophones to permit remote diagnostic services, such as blood sugar level, blood pressure and vital signs monitoring. Such units are capable of relaying both regular audiovideo plus medical data over either standard (POTS) telephone or newer broadband lines.
Videotelephony has also been deployed in corporate teleconferencing, also available through the use of public access videoconferencing rooms. A higher level of videoconferencing that employs advanced telecommunication technologies and high-resolution displays is called telepresence.
Today the principles, if not the precise mechanisms of a videophone are employed by many users worldwide in the form of webcam videocalls using personal computers, with inexpensive webcams, microphones and free videocalling web client programs. Thus an activity that was disappointing as a separate service has found a niche as a minor feature in software products intended for other purposes.
A videophone can also be created by using an old or inexpensive computer and dedicating it to run as a video softphone.[citation needed] This shows that some users may want to use use conventional videophones, but are likely to trade ease of use for lower costs.
Some have argued that unless conventional videophones add considerable value at low cost, and as long as less expensive alternatives (such as webphones) are available, it will be unlikely that dedicated videophones will become popular.[citation needed]
Sign language communications via videotelephony
Main articles: Video Relay Service, a telecommunication service for deaf, hard-of-hearing and speech-impaired (mute) individuals communicating with hearing persons at a different location, and Video Remote Interpreting, used where deaf/hard-of-hearing/mute persons are in the same location as their hearing parties
Video Interpreter sign used at VRS/VRI service locations
One of the first demonstrations of the ability for telecommunications to help sign language users communicate with each other occurred when AT&T’s videophone (trademarked as the ‘Picturephone’) was introduced to the public at the 1964 New York World’s Fair wo deaf users were able to freely communicate with each other between the fair and another city. Various organizations have also conducted research on signing via videotelephony.
Videophones are used by those who are deaf, hard-of-hearing or speech-impaired to communicate with sign language, both among themselves and also with hearing individuals. In the United States the Federal Communication Commission compensates companies to provide ‘Video Relay Services’ to the deaf, hard-of-hearing and speech-impaired. These people can use a videophone to talk to others via a sign language interpreter, who uses a conventional telephone at the same time to communicate with the deaf person’s party. Several other countries also offer video relay and remote interpretation services for the deaf.
Videophones are used to do on-site sign language translation via Video Remote Interpreting (VRI). The relatively low cost and widespread availability of UMTS technology mobile phones with video calling capabilities have given deaf people new possibilities to communicate with the same ease as others, with some wireless operators even starting up free sign language gateways.[citation needed]
A deaf or mute person using a Video Relay Service to communicate with a hearing person
Sign language interpretation services via Video Remote Interpreting (VRI) or a Video Relay Service (VRS) are useful in the present-day where one of the parties is deaf, hard-of-hearing or speech-impaired (mute). In such cases the interpretation flow is normally within the same principal language, such as French Sign Language (FSL) to spoken French, Spanish Sign Language (SSL) to spoken Spanish, British Sign Language (BSL) to spoken English, and American Sign Language (ASL) also to spoken English (since BSL and ASL are completely distinct), etc. Such activities involve considerable effort on the part of the translator, since sign languages are distinct natural languages with their own construction and syntax, different from the aural version of the same principal language.
With video interpreting, sign language interpreters work remotely with live video and audio feeds, so that the interpreter can see the deaf or mute party, and converse with the hearing party, and vice versa. Much like telephone interpreting, video interpreting can be used for situations in which no on-site interpreters are available. However, video interpreting cannot be used for situations in which all parties are speaking via telephone alone. VRI and VRS interpretation requires all parties to have the necessary equipment. Some advanced equipment enables interpreters to remotely control the video camera, in order to zoom in and out or to point the camera toward the party that is signing.
Further information: Sign language and Language interpretation
Technology
Bandwidth requirements
See also: Broadband Internet access
Videophones have historically employed a variety of transmission and reception bandwidths, which can be understood as data transmission speeds. The lower the transmission/reception bandwidth, the lower the data transfer rate, resulting in a more limited and poorer image quality. Data transfer rates and live video image quality are related, but are also subject to other factors such as data compression techniques. Some early videophones employed very low data transmission rates with a resulting sketchy video quality.
Broadband bandwidth is often called “high-speed”, because it usually has a high rate of data transmission. In general, any connection of 256 kbit/s (0.256 Mbit/s) or greater is more concisely considered broadband Internet. The International Telecommunication Union Standardization Sector (ITU-T) recommendation I.113 has defined broadband as a transmission capacity at 1.5 to 2 Mbit/s. The United States Federal Communications Commission definition of broadband is 768 kbit/s (0.8 Mbit/s).
Currently, adequate video for some purposes becomes possible at data rates lower than the ITU-T broadband definition, with rates of 768 kbit/s and 384 kbit/s used for some video conferencing applications, and rates as low as 100 kbit per second used for videophones using H.264/MPEG-4 AVC compression protocols. The newer MPEG-4 video and audio compression format can deliver high-quality video at 2 Mbit/s, which is at the low end of cable modem and ADSL broadband performance.[citation needed]
Picturephone technology
Deutsche Telekom T-View 100 ISDN type videophone meant for home offices and small businesses with a lens cover which can be rotated upward to assure privacy when needed
The Picturephone’s video bandwidth was 1 MHz with a vertical scan rate of 30 Hz, horizontal scan rate of 8 kHz, and about 250 visible scan lines.[citation needed] The equipment included a Speakerphone hands free telephone, with an added box to control picture transmission. Each Picturephone line used three twisted pairs of ordinary telephone cable, two pairs for video and one for audio and signaling. Cable amplifiers were spaced about a mile apart (1.6 kilometres) with built-in six-band adjustable equalization filters. For distances of more than a few miles, the signal was digitized at 2 MHz and 3 bits per sample DPCM, and transmitted on a T-2 carrier.[citation needed]
The original Picturephone system used contemporary crossbar and multi-frequency operation. Lines and trunks were six wire, one pair each way for video and one pair two way for audio. MF address signaling on the audio pair was supplemented by a Video Supervisory Signal (VSS) looping around on the video quad to ensure continuity. More complex protocols were later adopted for conferencing.[citation needed]
To deploy Picturephone service new wideband crossbar switches were designed and installed into the Bell System’s 5XB switch offices, this being the most widespread of the relatively modern kinds.[citation needed] Hundreds of technicians attended schools to learn to operate the Cable Equalizer Test Set and other equipment, and to install Picturephones.
AT&T later marketed the VideoPhone 2500 to the general public from 1992 to 1995.[citation needed] It was limited by analog phone line connection speeds of about 19 Kilobits per second, the video portion being 11,200 bits/s, and with a maximum frame rate of 10 frames per second, but typically much lower. The VideoPhone 2500 used proprietary technology protocols.[citation needed]
Call setup
Videoconferencing in the late 20th century was limited to the H.323 protocol (notably Cisco’s SCCP implementation was an exception), but newer videophones often use SIP, which is often easier to set up in home networking environments.[citation needed] H.323 is still used, but more commonly for business videoconferencing, while SIP is more commonly used in personal consumer videophones. A number of call-setup methods based on instant messaging protocols such as Skype also now provide video. The principal open systems SIP source is Counterpath Corp., which provides support for British Telecom, Deutsche Telekom, Sprint, Telmex, AT&T’s Callvantage, and the unified communicator of Cisco and Verizon.[citation needed]
Another protocol used by videophones is H.324, which mixes call setup and video compression. Videophones that work on regular phone lines typically use H.324, but the bandwidth is limited by the modem to around 33 kbit/s, limiting the video quality and frame rate. A slightly modified version of H.324 called 3G-324M defined by 3GPP is also used by some cellphones that allow video calls, typically for use only in UMTS networks.[citation needed]
There is also H.320 standard, which specified technical requirements for narrow-band visual telephone systems and terminal equipment, typically for videoconferencing and videophone services. It applied mostly to dedicated circuit-based switched network (point-to-point) connections of moderate or high bandwidth, such as through the medium-bandwidth ISDN digital phone protocol or a fractionated high bandwidth T1 lines. Modern products based on H.320 standard usually support also H.323 standard.
Videophones in popular culture
In many science fiction movies and TV programs that are set in the future, videophones are used as a primary method of communication. One of the first movies where a videophone was used was Fritz Lang Metropolis. Other famous examples of videophones include 2001: A Space Odyssey, Space: 1999, Star Trek, Total Recall, and Blade Runner. Of particular note, the videophone was a staple, everyday technology in the futuristic Hanna Barbera cartoon The Jetsons.
In science fiction literature, other names variously used for videophone include vidphone, visiphone, and viewphone.
A videophone was featured in the 1944 Warner Bros. cartoon, “Plane Daffy”, in which the female spy Hatta Mari used a videophone to communicate with Adolf Hitler.
In the British cartoon DangerMouse, where the title character regularly communicated with headquarters via videophones from both his home and his car.
A device with the same functionality has been used by the comic strip character Dick Tracy since 1964. Called the “2-Way Wrist TV”, the fictional detective often used the phone to communicate with police headquarters.
AT&T’s VideoPhone 2500 prototypes are visible in the movie Gremlins 2: The New Batch.
In the animated television program Futurama, the videophone is often used within the delivery service spaceship.
Videophones are occasionally used in the Pokmon anime.
A “Picturephone” is used in The Simpsons episode “Lisa’s Wedding”.
The singer Beyonc Knowles released a single called Video Phone from her 2008 album “I am… Sasha Fierce”
Popular U.S. TV talk show hostess Oprah Winfrey incorporated videotelephony into her TV program on a regular basis from May 21, 2009, with an initial episode called “Where the Skype Are You?”, as part of a marketing agreement with the Internet telecommunication company Skype.
See also
3GP
Camera phone
Information appliance
List of video telecommunication services and product brands
Media phone
Mobile phone
Mobile VoIP
Smartphone
Teleconferencing
Telephonoscope
Telepresence
Telerehabilitation
Teletraining
Tokbox
Videoconferencing
Videotelephony -parent article
Webcam
References
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^ a b http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?search=video&searchmode=none Video definition], Online Etymology Dictionary
^ Solomon Negash, Michael E. Whitman. Editors: Solomon Negash, Michael E. Whitman, Amy B. Woszczynski, Ken Hoganson, Herbert Mattord. Handbook of Distance Learning for Real-Time and Asynchronous Information Technology Education, Idea Group Inc (IGI), 2008, pg. 17, ISBN 1599049643, ISBN 9781599049649. Note costing: “….students had the option to install a webcam on their end (a basic webcam costs about $40.00) to view the class in session.”
^ Press Release: WiredRed To Launch Nefsis, Next Generation, On-Demand Video Conferencing At Unified Communications 09, Unified Communication Expo website, retrieved 2009-08-07;
^ Lawson, Stephen. Vidyo Packages Conferencing For Campuses, IDG News Service, February 16, 2010. Retrieved via Computerworld.com’s website, February 18, 2010
^ Jackman, Elizabeth. New Video Conferencing System Streamlines Firefighter Training, Peoria Times, Peoria, AZ, February 19, 2010. Retrieved February 19, 2010;
^ “A viewphone service”, New Scientist, 24 November 1966, 440/3;
^ Telephonoscope, A Cartoon of a Television/Videophone Terramedia website;
^ George du Maurier (1878) Punch magazine, December 9th, 1878;
^ R.W. Burns: “Television: An International History”, Distant vision (c 18801920), p. 78-84;
^ Louis Figuier, L’anne scientifique et industrielle ou Expos annuel des travaux scientifiques, des inventions et des principales applications de la science l’industrie et aux arts, qui ont attir l’attention publique en France et l’tranger. Vingt et unime anne (1877), Librairie Hachette, Paris, 1878. Reproduced on L’histoire de la tlvision . Retrieved 26 May 2008.
^ “The Electroscope”, The New York Sun, March 29, 1877. Reproduced on L’histoire de la tlvision.
^ a b D.N. Carson. “The Evolution Of PICTUREPHONE Service”, Bell Laboratories Record, Bell Labs, October 1968, pp.282-291.
^ Editorial and Articles on the Possibility of Seeing by Electricity, Article by Alexander Graham Bell, April 10, 1891, Originally recorded in the Beinn Bhreagh Recorder, March 22, 1910, March 22, retrieved 2009-04-05 from the Library of Congress: Alexander Graham Bell Family Papers;
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^ a b Washington Hails The Test: Operator There Puts Through the Calls as Scientists Watch, The New York Time, April 8, 1927, pg.20 (subscription)
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^ a b German Wikipedia
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^ Germany Opens Television Unit; Spokane Daily Chronicle – Mar 2, 1936;
^ Kasher, Steven The Art of Hitler, The MIT Press, October, Vol. 59 (Winter, 1992), pp. 59;
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^ NMAH | National Museum of American History Acquires Wireless Picturephone Prototypes
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Further reading
Schnaars, Steve; Wymbs, Cliff. On The Persistence Of Lackluster Demand The History Of The Video Telephone, Technological Forecasting and Social Change, March 2004, Vol.71, Issue 3, pp. 197-216. DOI: 10.1016/S0040-1625(02)00410-9. Viewable via ScienceDirect.com (subscription).
Stevenson Bacon, W. “Amazing New Picturephone: A Step Closer to In-Person Visits”, Popular Science, June 1968, pp. 4647, at Google books.
Look up videophone in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
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